(* Content-type: application/mathematica *) (*** Wolfram Notebook File ***) (* http://www.wolfram.com/nb *) (* CreatedBy='Mathematica 6.0' *) (*CacheID: 234*) (* Internal cache information: NotebookFileLineBreakTest NotebookFileLineBreakTest NotebookDataPosition[ 145, 7] NotebookDataLength[ 76286, 1839] NotebookOptionsPosition[ 24693, 719] NotebookOutlinePosition[ 73371, 1745] CellTagsIndexPosition[ 73328, 1742] WindowFrame->Normal ContainsDynamic->False*) (* Beginning of Notebook Content *) Notebook[{ Cell["Coll\[EGrave]ge du Sud, Marcel D\[EAcute]l\[EGrave]ze", "Text"], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Intelligence collective", "Title"], Cell["\<\ L'entomologie nous montre que les soci\[EAcute]t\[EAcute]s de termites ou de \ fourmis ont un comportement collectif complexe. Une soci\[EAcute]t\[EAcute] \ peut-elle \[EHat]tre plus intelligente que les individus qui la composent ?\ \>", "Text"], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["\<\ Fourmis \[AGrave] la recherche de nourriture\ \>", "Subtitle"], Cell[TextData[{ "Les ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox["200000", TraditionalForm]]], " fourmis d'un nid rapportent quotidiennement ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox["30000", TraditionalForm]]], " proies qu'elles vont chercher \[AGrave] une distance moyenne de ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"45", " ", "m"}], TraditionalForm]]], ". Or, les fourmis sont pratiquement aveugles, ce qui repr\[EAcute]sente une \ v\[EAcute]ritable performance." }], "Text", CellChangeTimes->{{3.501775051906212*^9, 3.5017750555662117`*^9}}], Cell["\<\ Elles s\[EAcute]lectionnent les sources de nourriture les plus proches et les \ plus abondantes. Entre le nid et les sources, elles choisissent le chemin le \ plus court. L'accomplissement de ces t\[AHat]ches est donc optimis\[EAcute].\ \>", "Text"], Cell["\<\ Les fourmis ne sont pas organis\[EAcute]es hi\[EAcute]rarchiquement et ne \ disposent d'aucun moyen de communication globale. Elles manifestent \ n\[EAcute]ammoins un comportement collectif coh\[EAcute]rent qui semble \ relever d'une intelligence collective.\ \>", "Text"], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["\<\ Mod\[EAcute]lisation: description du comportement individuel local\ \>", "Subsubtitle"], Cell["\<\ Comment expliquer ce comportement collectif par un comportement individuel \ local ?\ \>", "Text"], Cell["\<\ La zone de travail des fourmi est d\[EAcute]coup\[EAcute]e en cases \ d\[EAcute]nomm\[EAcute]es noeuds.\ \>", "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ StyleBox["A l'aller", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\nEn avan\[CCedilla]ant, la fourmi d\[EAcute]pose 1 unit\[EAcute] de ph\ \[EAcute]romone par noeud visit\[EAcute];\nil s'agit d'un marquage chimique \ qui consiste en une substance odorante volatile\nqu'une fourmi \ per\[CCedilla]oit lorsqu'elle se trouve \[AGrave] proximit\[EAcute] imm\ \[EAcute]diate;\nsur chaque noeud et pour chaque unit\[EAcute] de temps, ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ FractionBox["1", "30"], TraditionalForm]]], " de ph\[EAcute]romone s'\[EAcute]vapore;\nla fourmi avance vers un des \ noeuds les plus marqu\[EAcute]s." }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ StyleBox["Lors d'un retour avec proie", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\nLa fourmi d\[EAcute]pose 10 unit\[EAcute]s de ph\[EAcute]romone par noeud \ visit\[EAcute];\nla fourmi recule vers un des noeuds les plus \ marqu\[EAcute]s.\n(En s'approchant du nid, le balisage de la piste s'am\ \[EAcute]liore.)" }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ StyleBox["Lors d'un retour sans proie", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\nEn reculant, la fourmi d\[EAcute]pose 1 unit\[EAcute] de \ ph\[EAcute]romone par noeud visit\[EAcute] (comme \[AGrave] l'aller);\nla \ fourmi recule vers un des noeuds les plus marqu\[EAcute]s." }], "Text"], Cell["\<\ Les hypoth\[EGrave]ses pr\[EAcute]c\[EAcute]dentes sur le comportement \ individuel sont-elles suffisantes pour expliquer le comportement collectif de \ la colonie ? Une simulation informatique permet de le prouver.\ \>", "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ StyleBox["Source", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n\[LeftGuillemet]L'Intelligence collective: Comment les fourmis \ recherchent leur nourriture et organisent leur nid\[RightGuillemet] de Guy Th\ \[EAcute]raulaz, Eric Bonabeau, Simon Goss et Jean-Louis Deneubourg [Pour la \ Science, N\.ba 198 avril 1994]." }], "Text", CellChangeTimes->{{3.501775147542212*^9, 3.501775169310212*^9}}] }, Open ]] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Mod\[EAcute]lisation du tri du couvain", "Subtitle"], Cell["\<\ Dans le nid cohabitent divers \[EAcute]l\[EAcute]ments: des oeufs, des cocons \ ou nymphes et des larves \[AGrave] divers stades de d\[EAcute]veloppement \ soit 4 \[AGrave] 6 cat\[EAcute]gories. Or les fourmis trient ces \[EAcute]l\ \[EAcute]ments par sortes. Il s'agit l\[AGrave] d'une t\[AHat]che complexe \ qui semble relever d'une intelligence collective. Comment expliquer ce \ comportement collectif par un comportement individuel local ?\ \>", "Text"], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Le comportement d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une fourmi", "Subsubtitle"], Cell["\<\ Le nid est un ensemble de cases o\[UGrave] sont dispos\[EAcute]s des objets \ de deux sortes (bleus/rouges). Une case ne peut pas contenir plus d\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]un objet d\[EAcute]pos\[EAcute] sur le sol, ni plus d\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]une fourmi. Par contre, elle peut contenir un objet et une \ fourmi; dans ce dernier cas aussi, la fourmi peut \[EHat]tre charg\[EAcute]e \ ou non. Sans pouvoir quitter le nid, la fourmi se prom\[EGrave]ne \ al\[EAcute]atoirement, en se d\[EAcute]pla\[CCedilla]ant \ d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une case par unit\[EAcute] de temps. Plus pr\[EAcute]cis\ \[EAcute]ment, elle d\[EAcute]termine, parmi les cases adjacentes, celles qui \ existent et ne sont pas d\[EAcute]j\[AGrave] occup\[EAcute]es par une autre \ fourmi; il y a au plus 8 destinations possibles parmi lesquelles elle en choisit une \ au hasard. Si elle rencontre un objet localement rare, elle s'en saisit. Si elle transporte un objet qui est fr\[EAcute]quent dans son voisinage, elle \ le d\[EAcute]pose; plus pr\[EAcute]cis\[EAcute]ment:\ \>", "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ StyleBox["probabilit\[EAcute] qu\[CloseCurlyQuote]une fourmi non charg\ \[EAcute]e se saisisse d\[CloseCurlyQuote]un objet rencontr\[EAcute]", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n- si la sorte d\[CloseCurlyQuote]objet rencontr\[EAcute] est localement \ rare ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"(", RowBox[{"f", "=", "0"}], ")"}], TraditionalForm]]], ", la fourmi s\[CloseCurlyQuote]en saisit avec une grande \ probabilit\[EAcute]\n ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"p", "=", RowBox[{ SuperscriptBox[ RowBox[{"(", FractionBox["0.1", RowBox[{"0.1", "+", "f"}]], ")"}], "2"], "=", RowBox[{ SuperscriptBox[ RowBox[{"(", FractionBox["0.1", RowBox[{"0.1", "+", "0"}]], ")"}], "2"], "=", RowBox[{"100", " ", "%"}]}]}]}], TraditionalForm]]], " ;\n- si la sorte d\[CloseCurlyQuote]objet rencontr\[EAcute] est localement \ fr\[EAcute]quente ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"(", RowBox[{"f", "=", "1"}], ")"}], TraditionalForm]]], ", la fourmi ne s\[CloseCurlyQuote]en saisit qu\[CloseCurlyQuote]avec une \ faible probabilit\[EAcute]\n ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"p", "=", RowBox[{ SuperscriptBox[ RowBox[{"(", FractionBox["0.1", RowBox[{"0.1", "+", "f"}]], ")"}], "2"], "=", RowBox[{ SuperscriptBox[ RowBox[{"(", FractionBox["0.1", RowBox[{"0.1", "+", "1"}]], ")"}], "2"], "=", RowBox[{"0.8", " ", "%"}]}]}]}], TraditionalForm]]], ";\nil se produit une sorte d'\[EAcute]vaporation lente des tas constitu\ \[EAcute]s; c'est ainsi que les petits tas se d\[EAcute]font lentement\nau \ profit des grands tas;" }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ StyleBox["probabilit\[EAcute] qu\[CloseCurlyQuote]une fourmi charg\[EAcute]e \ d\[EAcute]pose sa charge", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n- si la sorte d\[CloseCurlyQuote]objet transport\[EAcute] est localement \ fr\[EAcute]quente ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"(", RowBox[{"f", "=", "1"}], ")"}], TraditionalForm]]], ", la fourmi la d\[EAcute]pose avec une grande probabilit\[EAcute]\n ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"p", "=", RowBox[{ SuperscriptBox[ RowBox[{"(", FractionBox["f", RowBox[{"0.1", "+", "f"}]], ")"}], "2"], "=", RowBox[{ SuperscriptBox[ RowBox[{"(", FractionBox["1", RowBox[{"0.1", "+", "1"}]], ")"}], "2"], "=", RowBox[{"82.6", " ", "%"}]}]}]}], TraditionalForm]]], " ;\n- si la sorte d\[CloseCurlyQuote]objet transport\[EAcute] est \ localement rare ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"(", RowBox[{"f", "=", "0"}], ")"}], TraditionalForm]]], ", la fourmi ne la d\[EAcute]pose qu\[CloseCurlyQuote]avec une faible \ probabilit\[EAcute]\n ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"p", "=", RowBox[{ SuperscriptBox[ RowBox[{"(", FractionBox["f", RowBox[{"0.1", "+", "f"}]], ")"}], "2"], "=", RowBox[{ SuperscriptBox[ RowBox[{"(", FractionBox["0", RowBox[{"0.1", "+", "0"}]], ")"}], "2"], "=", RowBox[{"0", " ", "%"}]}]}]}], TraditionalForm]]], " ." }], "Text"] }, Open ]] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Simulation du tri du couvain", "Subtitle"], Cell["\<\ Le but de la simulation est de prouver que les hypoth\[EGrave]ses concernant \ le \[LessLess] comportement individuel local \[GreaterGreater] sont suffisantes pour expliquer le \[LessLess] comportement collectif \ \[GreaterGreater].\ \>", "Text"], Cell["Voir le programme", "Text"], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Mode d\[CloseCurlyQuote]emploi", "Subsubsection"], Cell["\<\ 1.\tChoisissez les param\[EGrave]tres de la simulation, \ c\[CloseCurlyQuote]est-\[AGrave]-dire modifiez, si vous le souhaitez, les \ valeurs des \tdonn\[EAcute]es qui sont regroup\[EAcute]es au d\[EAcute]but du listing.\ \>", "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "2.\tEx\[EAcute]cutez le programme: menu ", StyleBox["Noyau / Evaluation / Evaluer le cahier", FontSlant->"Italic"] }], "Text"], Cell["3.\tExaminez la liste des graphiques.", "Text"] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Travaux pratiques", "Subsubtitle"], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Exercice 1", "Subsubsection"], Cell["\<\ Questions sur la proc\[EAcute]dure \[LeftGuillemet] pasFourmi \ \[RightGuillemet] du programme.\ \>", "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "a)\tD\[EAcute]crivez comment la repr\[EAcute]sentation interne de la fourmi \ num\[EAcute]ro ", StyleBox["i", FontSlant->"Italic"], " se modifie durant la phase d\[CloseCurlyQuote]\[LeftGuillemet] exploration\ \n\tdu voisinage \[RightGuillemet]. Pour ce faire, choisissez d\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]abord une situation de d\[EAcute]part." }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "b)\tD\[EAcute]crivez comment la repr\[EAcute]sentation internes de la \ fourmi num\[EAcute]ro ", StyleBox["i", FontSlant->"Italic"], " et la repr\[EAcute]sentation interne des cases du nid\n\tse modifient \ durant la phase de \[LeftGuillemet] d\[EAcute]placement \[RightGuillemet]." }], "Text"], Cell["\<\ c)\tM\[EHat]me question pour les phases de \[LeftGuillemet] prise en charge d\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]un objet rencontr\[EAcute] \[RightGuillemet] et de \ \[LeftGuillemet] d\[EAcute]chargement d\[CloseCurlyQuote]un objet \ttransport\[EAcute] \[RightGuillemet].\ \>", "Text"] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Exercice 2", "Subsubsection"], Cell[TextData[{ "a)\tVaut-il mieux faire travailler peu de fourmis pendant longtemps ou \ beaucoup de fourmis pendant peu de\n\ttemps ?\n\t", StyleBox["Indication ", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], ": faites des simulations en faisant varier ", StyleBox["nF", FontWeight->"Bold"], " et ", StyleBox["T1", FontWeight->"Bold"], " tout en conservant le produit ", StyleBox["nF*T1", FontWeight->"Bold"], " constant." }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "b)\tFaites quelques simulations en faisant varier ", StyleBox["nCol", FontWeight->"Bold"], ", ", StyleBox["nLn", FontWeight->"Bold"], ", ", StyleBox["nB", FontWeight->"Bold"], " et ", StyleBox["nR", FontWeight->"Bold"], " afin de d\[EAcute]terminer la quantit\[EAcute] de couvain\n\tque le \ programme peut trier efficacement en moins d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une minute." }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "c)\tFaites quelques simulations pour rechercher des valeurs de ", StyleBox["nMem", FontWeight->"Bold"], ", ", StyleBox["kP", FontWeight->"Bold"], " et ", StyleBox["kM", FontWeight->"Bold"], " qui produisent un bon effet, si\n\tpossible meilleur que dans l\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]exemple donn\[EAcute]." }], "Text"] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Exercice 3-3", "Subsubsection"], Cell[TextData[{ StyleBox["Remplissage de la m\[EAcute]moire", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\nDans le programme ci-joint, on met en m\[EAcute]moire l\[CloseCurlyQuote]\ \[EAcute]tat de toutes les cases voisines que la fourmi explore avant de \ faire mouvement.\nDans l\[CloseCurlyQuote]article \[LeftGuillemet] L\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]intelligence collective \[RightGuillemet], les auteurs pr\ \[EAcute]conisent de ne m\[EAcute]moriser que les \[EAcute]tats des cases \ effectivement occup\[EAcute]es par la fourmi." }], "Text"], Cell["\<\ Modifiez le programme pour g\[EAcute]rer la m\[EAcute]moire selon la proc\ \[EAcute]dure d\[EAcute]crite dans la figure de la page 93 de l\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]article \[LeftGuillemet] L\[CloseCurlyQuote]intelligence collective \ \[RightGuillemet].\ \>", "Text"] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Exercice 3", "Subsubsection"], Cell["\<\ V\[EAcute]rifiez, par simulation, que le comportement collectif des fourmis n\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]est pas alt\[EAcute]r\[EAcute] par des perturbations telles \ que la mort de quelques fourmis ou des obstacles qui surgissent dans le \ milieu.\ \>", "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ StyleBox["Indications : ", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n1.\tIntroduisez un quatri\[EGrave]me \[EAcute]tat d\[EAcute]nomm\[EAcute] \ \[LeftGuillemet] exclu \[RightGuillemet]. Pour \ l\[CloseCurlyQuote]\[EAcute]tat d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une fourmi, exclu signifie \ mort. Pour une case,\n\t\"exclu\" signifie qu\[CloseCurlyQuote]il s\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]agit d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une case obstacle dont l\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]occupation est interdite.\n2.\tAu temps ", StyleBox["tMorts", FontWeight->"Bold"], ", on tire au sort ", StyleBox["nMorts", FontWeight->"Bold"], " fourmis qu\[CloseCurlyQuote]on sacrifie.\n3.\tAu temps", StyleBox[" tObst", FontWeight->"Bold"], ", on tire au sort ", StyleBox["nObst", FontWeight->"Bold"], " cases non occup\[EAcute]es qu\[CloseCurlyQuote]on d\[EAcute]clare \ interdites." }], "Text"] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Exercice 4", "Subsubsection"], Cell[TextData[{ "Ecrivez une version du programme pour des fourmis d\[EAcute]pourvues de m\ \[EAcute]moire.\nOn compte d\[CloseCurlyQuote]abord le nombre d\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]objets ", StyleBox["v", FontSlant->"Italic"], " de la sorte consid\[EAcute]r\[EAcute]e qui se trouvent dans les 8 cases \ voisines de la fourmi: ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[GridBox[{ {"\[Placeholder]", "\[Placeholder]", "\[Placeholder]"}, {"\[Placeholder]", "X", "\[Placeholder]"}, {"\[Placeholder]", "\[Placeholder]", "\[Placeholder]"} }], TraditionalForm]]], "\n(pr\[EGrave]s des bords du nid, il y aura moins de cases \[AGrave] consid\ \[EAcute]rer).\nLa densit\[EAcute] locale ", StyleBox["f", FontSlant->"Italic"], " est donn\[EAcute]e par ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"f", " ", "=", " ", FractionBox["v", "nA"]}], TraditionalForm]]], " o\[UGrave] nA d\[EAcute]signe le nombre de cases adjacentes." }], "Text"] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Exercice 5", "Subsubsection"], Cell[TextData[{ "Comment comparer deux couvains tri\[EAcute]s ? Ecrivez un sous-programme \ qui mesure la qualit\[EAcute] du tri effectu\[EAcute] par un nombre \ r\[EAcute]el de l\[CloseCurlyQuote]intervalle ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{" ", RowBox[{"[", RowBox[{"0", ";", " ", "1"}], "]"}]}], TraditionalForm]]], ".\n", StyleBox["Indications", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n1.\tPour chaque case, comptez le nombre de voisins ", StyleBox["v", FontSlant->"Italic"], " qui sont dans le m\[EHat]me \[EAcute]tat que la case;\n\ton obtient un \ entier ", StyleBox["v", FontSlant->"Italic"], " entre 0 et 8.\n2.\tCalculez la somme ", StyleBox["S", FontSlant->"Italic"], " de tous les nombres ainsi obtenus.\n3.\tMontrez que, lorsque toutes les \ cases sont dans le m\[EHat]me \[EAcute]tat, la somme maximale que l\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]on obtient est\n\t", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{"M", "=", RowBox[{ RowBox[{"(", RowBox[{ RowBox[{ RowBox[{"(", RowBox[{ RowBox[{"4", "*", "nCol"}], " ", "-", " ", "3"}], ")"}], "*", RowBox[{"(", RowBox[{ RowBox[{"4", "*", "nLn"}], " ", "-", " ", "3"}], ")"}]}], " ", "-", " ", "1"}], ")"}], " ", "div", " ", "2"}]}], TraditionalForm]]], ".\n4.\tOn d\[EAcute]finit la qualit\[EAcute] du tri par ", Cell[BoxData[ FormBox[ RowBox[{" ", RowBox[{"Q", "=", FractionBox["S", "M"]}]}], TraditionalForm]]], "." }], "Text"] }, Open ]] }, Open ]] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Commentaires", "Subtitle"], Cell["\<\ Dans les deux exemples cit\[EAcute]s dans l\[CloseCurlyQuote]article, les \ fourmis sont capables 1.\tde percevoir certains \[EAcute]l\[EAcute]ments de leur environnement imm\ \[EAcute]diat (sentir une odeur, percevoir la pr\[EAcute]sence d\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]un \tcong\[EAcute]n\[EGrave]re, d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une proie ou d\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]un obstacle, ...); 2.\tde modifier certains \[EAcute]l\[EAcute]ments de leur environnement imm\ \[EAcute]diat (d\[EAcute]poser une odeur, prendre ou d\[EAcute]poser un \tobjet, ...);\ \>", "Text"], Cell["\<\ la colonie de fourmis est capable 3.\tde se comporter comme une soci\[EAcute]t\[EAcute] coh\[EAcute]rente qui \ effectue collectivement une t\[AHat]che complexe; 4.\tde se comporter comme une soci\[EAcute]t\[EAcute] stable qui \ r\[EAcute]siste aux perturbations : si l\[CloseCurlyQuote]environnement \ change ou si des \tfourmis meurent, le travail continue; 5.\tde se comporter comme une soci\[EAcute]t\[EAcute] capable de s\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]adapter \[AGrave] certaines modifications du milieu (d\ \[EAcute]couvrir sans \tcesse de nouvelles sources de nourriture, ...).\ \>", "Text"], Cell["\<\ Par contre, il est important de remarquer que de tels syst\[EGrave]mes sont \ \[AGrave] l\[CloseCurlyQuote]oppos\[EAcute] d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une vision \ anthropomorphique des activit\[EAcute]s sociales telle que \[LeftGuillemet] \ fixer des objectifs \[RightGuillemet], \[LeftGuillemet] d\[EAcute]cider des \ moyens \[RightGuillemet], \[LeftGuillemet] planifier les actions \ \[RightGuillemet], \[LeftGuillemet] surveiller les travaux \[RightGuillemet], \ etc. Ainsi, dans les simulations, les fourmis 1.\tne communiquent pas directement entre elles; elles \ s\[CloseCurlyQuote]interinfluencent de mani\[EGrave]re indirecte, en \ modifiant leur \tmilieu; en tous cas, la communication demeure locale; 2.\tn\[CloseCurlyQuote]ont aucune vision globale de la t\[AHat]che \[AGrave] \ accomplir; 3.\tne re\[CCedilla]oivent aucun ordre d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une \ autorit\[EAcute] coordinatrice; 4.\tont un comportement individuel tr\[EGrave]s simple et al\[EAcute]atoire; \ leur comportement est enti\[EGrave]rement r\[EAcute]gi par le hasard et \tpar leur environnement imm\[EAcute]diat.\ \>", "Text"] }, Open ]], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["D\[EAcute]fis et perspectives", "Subtitle"], Cell["\<\ Ces mod\[EGrave]les de simulation d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une soci\[EAcute]t\ \[EAcute] int\[EAcute]ressent une large gamme de domaines dans lesquels la \ recherche est actuellement tr\[EGrave]s active :\ \>", "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "1.\t", StyleBox["L\[CloseCurlyQuote]objectif entomologiste", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n\tIl s\[CloseCurlyQuote]agit de construire un mod\[EGrave]le de soci\ \[EAcute]t\[EAcute] qui rende compte du comportement des insectes sociaux. La\ \n\tsimulation permet de prouver que des hypoth\[EGrave]ses concernant le \ comportement des individus sont suffisantes pour\n\texpliquer le comportement \ collectif de la colonie." }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "2.\t", StyleBox["La construction d\[CloseCurlyQuote]ordinateurs massivement parall\ \[EGrave]les", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n\tComment faire coop\[EAcute]rer une quantit\[EAcute] de processeurs \ \[AGrave] une t\[AHat]che collective complexe ?" }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "3.\t", StyleBox["La construction de robots", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n\tNe peut-on pas remplacer des machines tr\[EGrave]s complexes par une \ soci\[EAcute]t\[EAcute] de robots simples qui coop\[EGrave]rent \[AGrave] une\ \n\tt\[AHat]che commune ?" }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "4.\t", StyleBox["La compr\[EAcute]hension du cerveau", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n\tLe cerveau peut-il \[EHat]tre consid\[EAcute]r\[EAcute] comme une soci\ \[EAcute]t\[EAcute] de neurones qui, par leurs interactions, acquiert un\n\t\ comportement collectif coh\[EAcute]rent ?" }], "Text"], Cell[TextData[{ "5.\t", StyleBox["La question philosophique de la source de \ l\[CloseCurlyQuote]intelligence", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}], "\n\tL\[CloseCurlyQuote]intelligence peut-elle s\[CloseCurlyQuote]expliquer \ par des processus naturels ou bien doit-on n\[EAcute]cessairement faire appel \ \[AGrave] un\n\tprincipe spirituel (\[AHat]me, divinit\[EAcute], ....) ?\n\tD\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]une part, si un chercheur s\[CloseCurlyQuote]attaque au \ probl\[EGrave]me de l\[CloseCurlyQuote]\[EAcute]mergence de l\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]intelligence, il doit conjecturer qu\[CloseCurlyQuote]il\n\t\ s\[CloseCurlyQuote]agit d\[CloseCurlyQuote]un ph\[EAcute]nom\[EGrave]ne \ naturel susceptible d\[CloseCurlyQuote]explication scientifique. Ce postulat \ a l\[CloseCurlyQuote]avantage de constituer un\n\tterrain fertile pour le d\ \[EAcute]veloppement des connaissances.\n\tD\[CloseCurlyQuote]autre part, un \ argument en faveur du spiritualisme consiste \[AGrave] dire que les corps \ physiques sont incapables\n\td\[CloseCurlyQuote]auto-organisation. \ \[LeftGuillemet] Mettez une montre en pi\[EGrave]ces \ d\[EAcute]tach\[EAcute]es dans une bo\[IHat]te et secouez. Apr\[EGrave]s un \ certain temps,\n\tverrez-vous appara\[IHat]tre une montre qui fonctionne ? \ \[RightGuillemet]. Il s\[CloseCurlyQuote]ensuit que \ l\[CloseCurlyQuote]existence de structures complexes\n\tn\[EAcute]cessite l\ \[CloseCurlyQuote]existence d\[CloseCurlyQuote]une intelligence \ organisatrice." }], "Text"], Cell["\<\ Il n\[CloseCurlyQuote]est \[EAcute]videmment pas possible de donner une r\ \[EAcute]ponse d\[EAcute]finitive aux monumentales interrogations \ pr\[EAcute]c\[EAcute]dentes. Malgr\[EAcute] le caract\[EGrave]re encore \ rudimentaire des simulations effectu\[EAcute]es, un des objectifs est de \ prouver que des syst\[EGrave]mes ne poss\[EAcute]dant que des composants \ simples sont capables de s\[CloseCurlyQuote]auto-organiser et de produire des \ comportements complexes. Un tel sujet de r\[EAcute]flexion est un puissant \ ferment qui anime la recherche contemporaine.\ \>", "Text"], Cell[CellGroupData[{ Cell["Liens hypertextes", "Subsubsection", CellChangeTimes->{{3.501775212793212*^9, 3.501775217956212*^9}}], Cell[TextData[{ "Programme ", StyleBox["Mathematica", FontSlant->"Italic"], " auquel se r\[EAcute]f\[EGrave]re ce document:\n\t", StyleBox["http://www.deleze.name/marcel/mathematica/index.html", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}, FontColor->RGBColor[0, 0, 1]] }], "Text", CellChangeTimes->{{3.5017752568492117`*^9, 3.501775310252212*^9}, 3.5017753575112123`*^9, {3.5017754051762123`*^9, 3.5017754801722116`*^9}}],\ Cell[TextData[{ "Version pour ", StyleBox["Windows:", FontSlant->"Italic"], "\n\t", StyleBox["http://www.deleze.name/marcel/logiciels/index.php", FontVariations->{"Underline"->True}, FontColor->RGBColor[0, 0, 1]] }], "Text", CellChangeTimes->{{3.5017752568492117`*^9, 3.501775310252212*^9}, 3.5017753575112123`*^9, {3.5017755200592117`*^9, 3.501775573837212*^9}}] }, Open ]] }, Open ]] }, Open ]] }, WindowSize->{1264, 903}, WindowMargins->{{-1, Automatic}, {Automatic, 11}}, PrintingCopies->1, PrintingPageRange->{Automatic, Automatic}, FrontEndVersion->"6.0 for Microsoft Windows (32-bit) (June 19, 2007)", StyleDefinitions->Notebook[{ Cell[ CellGroupData[{ Cell["Style Definitions", "Subtitle"], Cell[ "Modify the definitions below to change the default appearance of all \ cells in a given style. 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The \"Hyperlink\" style is for links within the same Notebook, \ or between Notebooks.", "Text"], Cell[ CellGroupData[{ Cell[ StyleData["Hyperlink"], StyleMenuListing -> None, ButtonStyleMenuListing -> Automatic, FontVariations -> {"Underline" -> True}, FontColor -> RGBColor[0, 0, 1], ButtonBoxOptions -> { Active -> True, ButtonFrame -> "None", ButtonFunction :> (FrontEndExecute[{ FrontEnd`NotebookLocate[#2]}]& ), ButtonNote -> ButtonData}], Cell[ StyleData["Hyperlink", "Presentation"], FontSize -> 16], Cell[ StyleData["Hyperlink", "Condensed"], FontSize -> 11], Cell[ StyleData["Hyperlink", "Printout"], FontSize -> 10, FontVariations -> {"Underline" -> False}, FontColor -> GrayLevel[0]]}, Closed]], Cell[ "The following styles are for linking automatically to the on-line \ help system.", "Text"], Cell[ CellGroupData[{ Cell[ StyleData["MainBookLink"], StyleMenuListing -> None, ButtonStyleMenuListing -> Automatic, FontVariations -> {"Underline" -> True}, FontColor -> RGBColor[0, 0, 1], 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StyleData["CopyEvaluateCell"], StyleMenuListing -> None, ButtonStyleMenuListing -> Automatic, ButtonBoxOptions -> {ButtonFunction :> (FrontEndExecute[{ FrontEnd`SelectionCreateCell[ FrontEnd`InputNotebook[], All], FrontEnd`NotebookApply[ FrontEnd`InputNotebook[], #, All], FrontEnd`SelectionEvaluateCreateCell[ FrontEnd`InputNotebook[], All]}]& )}]}, Closed]], Cell[ CellGroupData[{ Cell["Placeholder Styles", "Section"], Cell[ "The cells below define styles useful for making placeholder objects \ in palette templates.", "Text"], Cell[ CellGroupData[{ Cell[ StyleData["Placeholder"], Placeholder -> True, StyleMenuListing -> None, FontSlant -> "Italic", FontColor -> RGBColor[0.890623, 0.864698, 0.384756], TagBoxOptions -> { Editable -> False, Selectable -> False, StripWrapperBoxes -> False}], Cell[ StyleData["Placeholder", "Presentation"]], Cell[ StyleData["Placeholder", "Condensed"]], Cell[ StyleData["Placeholder", "Printout"]]}, Closed]], Cell[ CellGroupData[{ Cell[ 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